The process of problem solving is therefore enhanced whenever the learner is able to gain access to, and manipulate, concepts and knowledge representations of problem-solving procedures. According to Lee, Baylor and Nelson (2005) "Potential instructional uses of external knowledge representations include the following: (a) clarification or elaboration of a learner's own conceptual understanding of a problem space…(b) communication of a learner's conceptual understanding to others… and, (c) evaluation of a learner's conceptual understanding. The focus here is the first use: that is, the learners' use of external representations to aid in their interpretation and understanding of concepts and procedures, as a way to facilitate problem solving" (p. 118).
Structures vs. Processes: Memory Models And Processes
The term "structures" refers to the contents attributes and products of the human brain, while the term "processes" denotes the manners in which knowledge is absorbed and recalled. Studies of memory processes are usually divided into two primary categories: short-term memory and long-term memory. Not only do different parts of the brain handle these functions, but different cognitive processes are involved with them as well. The fundamental distinction between short-term and long-term memory is the length of time between the event and the individual's memory of it, and the length to time that the individual is able to retain and retrieve that memory.
As Nairne (2002) explains, "For many years psychologists have essentially agreed about the main mechanism controlling the temporary storage of information. The generally accepted view -- referred to here as the standard model -- is that short-term storage arises from activation, a mnemonic property that keeps information in an immediately accessible form. Permanent knowledge is activated, as a byproduct of online cognitive processing, and comes to reside 'in' short-term (or working)...
Short-term memory, as a whole, is simply defined as the collective set of this activated information in memory" (p. 61)
Carney, Levin and Levin (1993) report that students who use mnemonic strategies generally fare better than students who use other strategies such as rote repetition, when they are asked to recall or interpret the meaning of words at a later date. However without teacher intervention, the authors warn, this process is unlikely to occur for lower achieving students or for students with a learning disability. According to the authors, "Although higher-achieving students often invent effective learning strategies on their own, lower-achieving students and those with learning disabilities are not likely to do so" (p. 28). It is for this reason that it is critical for teachers to tailor their instruction methods to suit individual needs.
References
Carney, R.N., Levin, M.E., & Levin, J.R. (1993) "Mnemonic strategies: Instructional techniques worth remembering," Teaching Exceptional Children, 25, 24-30.
Chen, P. & McGrath, D. (2003). Knowledge construction and knowledge representation in high school students' design of hypermedia documents. Journal of Multimedia and Hypermedia, 12, 33-61.
Flavell, J.H. (1999). Cognitive development: Children's knowledge about the mind. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 21-45.
Garcia, C. & Garcia, L. (2006) A Motor-development and motor-learning perspective: How do the organism, the environment, and the task affect motor learning? The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 77, 31-33
Lee, Y., Baylor, A.L. & Nelson, D. (2005) Supporting Problem-solving Performance Through the Construction of Knowledge Maps . Journal of Interactive Learning Research. 16, 117-131
Nairne, J.S. (2002). Remembering over the short-term: The case against the standard model. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 53-81.
